By Hannah McCloskey
PFAS in North Carolina
North Carolina’s waters are no stranger to ‘forever chemicals. Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS, are a group of over 14,000 man-made chemicals commonly used in manufacturing processes to make products grease, stain, and water-resistant. Some examples of products containing PFAS include non-stick cookware, clothing, food packaging, and makeup. They are nicknamed ‘forever chemicals’ because they are extremely difficult to destroy and accumulate in the environment and human body. Exposure to these compounds is associated with many health effects for humans and animals, such as increased risk of cancers, developmental delays, and reproductive effects.

PFAS have been contaminating NC’s waters since the 1980s, when DuPont, now known as the Chemours Company, began dumping their wastewater filled with these chemicals into the Cape Fear River. This river basin is the drinking water source for over 1.5 million North Carolinians, including the City of Wilmington. The citizens of Wilmington had high levels of PFAS contamination in their drinking water, but they weren’t alerted to this until 2017. The compound that had the highest concentration in Wilmington’s water, GenX – a chemical only manufactured by Chemours – was developed as a ‘safer’ alternative to the more common PFOA.
After uncovering the dangerous chemicals in Wilmington’s drinking water, people were motivated to complete more water sampling around the state. The NC Collaboratory established the NC PFAS Testing Network, whose goal is to address PFAS in the water and air, and better understand the toxic effects of these chemicals. In 2019, the PFAS Testing Network sampled over 300 water systems and identified those affected by PFAS in their drinking water. This testing motivated other entities to conduct additional sampling of public water systems for PFAS.
Taking a Closer Look at the EPA’s PFAS Drinking Water Rule
During the summer of 2024, I worked as an Environmental Policy Intern at the NC Collaboratory. My primary research was focused on PFAS in North Carolina’s waters, specifically regarding state and federal legislation of PFAS in drinking water. In April 2024, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) passed the first regulation for PFAS in drinking water called the National Primary Drinking Water Regulation. I was tasked with understanding:
- How the EPA came to make such a regulation;
- What this regulation means; and,
- How this regulation will impact North Carolina.
I primarily conducted research by reviewing academic journals and information from state and federal agencies. However, I also had the opportunity to interview professionals in the field of environmental policy and attend meetings on PFAS regulations. This allowed me to gain a well-rounded understanding of the issue and see policy in action first-hand.
From everything I learned, I was able to publish a whitepaper, titled, “Implications of the National Primary Drinking Water Regulation on PFAS in North Carolina.” This paper summarizes the history of legislation for PFAS on the federal and state levels, gives an overview of the new federal regulation, and explores the implications this regulation will have on NC. I hope that my whitepaper can be utilized by policymakers and other stakeholders to gain an overview and understanding of this issue and why it is important.
What Does the National Regulation Mean for NC?
The National Primary Drinking Water Regulation regulates 6 PFAS and requires all water systems to have concentrations below the Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) shown in this table. Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs) are levels of these compounds that are thought to cause no adverse health effects. MCLs are set as close to MCLGs while considering feasibility constraints. All water utilities and systems will be required to complete water sampling to identify the levels of PFAS in their system. If the levels are above the MCLs, they are required to either find a different source of water that is PFAS-free or implement an EPA-designated ‘Best Available Technology’ to reduce the PFAS to a level below the MCLs.
Compound | Final MCL | Final MCLG |
---|---|---|
PFOA | 4.0 ppt | 0 |
PFOS | 4.0 ppt | 0 |
PFHxS | 10.0 ppt | 10 ppt |
PFNA | 10.0 ppt | 10 ppt |
GenX (HFPO-DA) | 10.0 ppt | 10 ppt |
Mixtures containing two or more of: PFHxS, PFNA, Genx, and PFBS | Hazard Index of 1 (unitless) | Hazard Index of 1 (unitless) |
Some utilities and water systems in NC, such as Cape Fear Public Utility Authority, have implemented treatment technologies when sampling uncovered high levels of PFAS. However, it is estimated that there are still 320 water systems in NC with PFAS levels above the MCLs, as seen in the map below.

This type of regulation puts the responsibility of treating PFAS onto water utilities. Treatment technologies for PFAS are very expensive, and with a lack of federal and state funds, utilities may have to raise customer’s water rates to fund these treatment technologies.
This has already been seen in other places with state-level PFAS regulations. The federal government has allocated $1 billion to help states implement this regulation. NC will receive $29 million of these funds. To put this into perspective, the Cape Fear Public Utility Authority spent over $43 million to implement a treatment technology at one of their facilities.
Utilities, towns, and states around the country will face challenges cleaning PFAS out of drinking water, however, this regulation is an important first step in granting people access to water free of harmful forever chemicals. Many supporters of this regulation hope that the EPA will continue to take action to protect people from PFAS in drinking water. This can look like regulating PFAS not covered in this regulation or regulating manufacturers to ensure the compounds don’t enter the environment in the first place.
Identifying Solutions and Providing Technical Assistance
Over the last several years the Collaboratory has supported dozens of PFAS research projects to gather data to address this issue and try to help citizens across the state impacted by PFAS. The NC General Assembly has allocated around $50 million to the NC Collaboratory and PFAS Testing Network for PFAS research. This is the largest amount of money a state legislature has dedicated to academic research for PFAS in the country. The PFAS Testing Network team will continue to aid state agencies and utilities with their findings and plans to continue sampling in the future. The NC Collaboratory remains committed to advancing research around PFAS. As part of its ongoing research portfolio, the Collaboratory plans to fund research projects that will help communities and water utilities comply with the new drinking water rule.
I am very grateful I had the opportunity to work at the Collaboratory this past summer. Through my research, I learned so much about policy and got to see how policy plays out in the real world. I had the opportunity to connect with so many knowledgeable people who shared perspectives on the world of PFAS and policy. I hope that my research will have an impact and spread awareness about PFAS in drinking water.
Hannah McCloskey is a graduate student in UNC-Chapel Hill’s Master of Public Policy program (BA ’24, Public Policy and Medical Anthropology) and has been an Environmental Policy Intern at the NC Collaboratory since the summer of 2024.